Category: Toolbox

Grade Your Website

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Maybe it’s because we’re a web magazine, but composers frequently write to us asking for advice about their own websites—what should they include, what the technical specs should be on their sound samples, if we know any good designers who work cheap.

There really are no absolutes, of course, and what works well for one composer might not be appropriate for another, but in general terms here’s a checklist of a few items you might want to consider, whether you already have a website you’re pretty proud of, think yours could use a makeover, or are just starting to consider putting a site together.

We’ve come through enough Internet development that personal websites are often pretty slick operations. To start, approach your website as a first-time visitor (it’s a good idea to ask a couple friends to do this as well). Ask yourself: Who will be visiting my site—players, conductors, journalists, potential commissioners or grantors? What information are they most likely looking for? Is that information easy to find? If you’re going to design your own site, knowing the answers to these kinds of questions before you start should make your job much easier. If you’ve decided to hire the work out, it’s still essential to have a clear picture of what you want your site to accomplish. Designers, much like hair stylists, can only work with the materials and guidance you give them.

Consider These Resources from AMC

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Whether or not you already have a website, you might consider taking advantage of two programs offered by the American Music Center. One program is NewMusicJukebox.org, AMC’s online library and listening room that uses a powerful, searchable database to help conductors, performers, artistic administrators, choreographers, and others find new music to program. (You do have to be a member of AMC and a U.S. citizen or meet certain residency requirements to participate.) The information on the site is administered directly by composers or publishers themselves, so that gives you flexibility (you can change your bio as often as you like, for example) and control over the content. On NewMusicJukebox, you can upload your photo, bio, contact information, your list of works, program notes, and digital score and sound files.

If you already have a website, you can link to your works on NewMusicJukebox, and your contact information on NewMusicJukebox can include a link to your personal website. How does someone find your music on NewMusicJukebox? To answer, let’s say hypothetically that you have a work for string quartet and accordion listed on NewMusicJukebox. And let’s say an accordion player who is looking for new repertoire would search for works for accordion and find your work. If they click on the title, they would find a page that gives details about your work and would also include your contact information. If you have a score and sound file, they could review that. If they decided that they wanted to perform the work or to ask you for a score for perusal, they could click on your email address and contact you, or they could click the link to visit your website for more information.

Another program that might be helpful in deciding how to organize the information on your website is the AMC’s workshop on promotion, which is especially geared towards self-publishing composers. The workshop covers in detail the kind of information that is essential to provide for potential performers. Although it covers much broader topics than website content, it offers a valuable perspective on the business of promoting your music.

—Lyn Liston,
Director of New Music Information Services

Now, on to specifics:

Biography

Think of the last time you read someone’s bio and it hooked you. As a general rule, a long list of awards, no matter how prestigious, is not engaging reading. Again, think of your audience and remember that this section of your site is very often your virtual introduction to people who may know nothing about you or your music. Also, recall that people like to skim when reading online, so err on the side of brevity. Judicious use of bullet points may be helpful when listing educational background or awards.

You might also consider placing appropriate bios of various lengths alongside a selection of three or four headshots for use by the press or in concert program materials. Having these items readily accessible will save everyone time.

Keep image file sizes as small as possible while maintaining quality. Editing programs may even allow you to optimize graphics for the web. Overall, it is recommended that you try and keep each page—graphics and text—under 40KB. Post your high-resolution, print-quality media photos as available for download via a link to the file rather than as large files that actually appear on your page to cut down on loading time.

A word on photography

The old cliché that a picture is worth 1,000 words is a cliché for a reason, so consider having a few professional photos taken—it can make a huge difference in how you are perceived. A snapshot from your birthday party that obviously has had a family member cropped out of it is not appropriate.

Beyond that, candid photos from performances of your work and/or of you performing or conducting are, of course, a great way to add depth to the representation—both of yourself and your work—that you are trying to create for your site visitor.

Listing your compositions

Depending on the style and type of music you create, this will likely vary greatly. Start by thinking about why someone would be visiting this page. Are they likely to be looking for a work for a specific instrument or ensemble type, making listing things alphabetically within categories appropriate? As a rule, listing your information chronologically is not as useful as by category, but a link to a page where the information is available arranged by year composed could be of interest to visitors most interested in seeing what work you’ve done recently.

Within the entry for each work, include as many of the following items as apply:

Instrumentation (include any unusual requirements)
Duration
Creation date
Alternate versions
Commissioning and/or premiere information
Recognition the work has received (awards, short quote from a performance review, etc.)
Links to score and sound samples

Once you’ve settled on th
e best format, be consistent in the order and style of each entry.

Upcoming Performances and Press Quotes

People who visit your site are a pre-selected slice of humanity—on some level they are already interested in your music. Don’t let them go away without knowing when your next performance will be and commit to updating this part of your site regularly. Even if you have hired a designer, it’s advisable that you or someone you are in regular communication with has the ability to add new dates as soon as they are booked.

Once the curtain is down and the reviews roll in, take advantage of the commentary. Select a few high-energy excerpts from recent reviews, and be sure to include the media source, author, and date the item appeared. Refresh these as new reviews of your work come in—old datelines might make the reader wonder what you’ve been doing since 1997. Why isn’t anyone performing your work anymore? Consider providing links to full articles (take care that these remain accessible over time and to non-subscribers).

Discography

Listing chronologically may make sense here, though consider putting discs devoted exclusively to your music as a composer or performer ahead of compilation CDs if appropriate. Include track and performer information, suitable excerpts from reviews or liner notes, and, of course, how to buy them.

Encoding Decoded: Score and Sound Files

Your site is about music, so sound samples are likely to be one of the items all your visitors come looking for. Perhaps a performer has just heard one of your pieces on a program and wants to know what your other music sounds like. Perhaps a journalist notices that you have a show coming up and is trying to decide if you’re worth reviewing.

Let’s get piracy fears out of the way up front. When you put something online, there is the chance that someone could take your materials and exploit them in some way—though if they make a commercial killing off it, you’ll probably find out about it and get your due in court. But weigh that against not placing sound samples on your site and the resulting loss of listeners who pass you by because they don’t get to hear your music when they look you up online. Ultimately, just how much of your music in score or audio format you wish to make available must simply fit with your artistic and professional goals.

That said, before you put any media up on the web, think about who you need to get permission from so that you are not infringing on another’s copyright. No matter how short an excerpt you plan to use, don’t assume you can claim fair use: It is a privilege, not a legally recognized right. If the work in question is not self-published, check in with your publisher and get written approval for all score and sound samples that appear. For non-commercial recordings you will also need the thumbs up from all the performers involved; a sample agreement you may want to use is posted on NewMusicJukebox. For commercial recordings, you will need to seek permission from the record label.

Once all the paperwork is in order, you will need to make the samples. Depending on your computer experience, this part may cause some bit of stress, but the process is relatively simple once you get going. If you have questions along the way, they very well may be addressed within the program you’re using or on the NewMusicJukebox FAQ page.

When it comes to score samples, a .pdf file will be most universally readable. Scorch, a free downloadable reader, is available to open Sibelius files. This option offers the benefit of being able to “play” the score, but you will need to make it clear that users will be required to take an extra step if they do not already have the necessary plug-in.

Sound clips are a bit more complicated. To start, let’s consider streaming vs downloading. If a file is streamed it will begin to play immediately (no waiting for the download to complete which, if the file is long, can take awhile). Streamed files are also not copied to the user’s hard drive, perhaps also reducing the risk of piracy.

In general, sound files that appear on personal websites are of the same sound quality whether downloaded or streamed. What makes the quality of a streamed file variable is based on Internet connection speed and traffic. A user who downloads a complete sample is assured a complete file, and the quality will be determined by the system they use to play it.

Adding to the complexity, the preferred media player being used on the visitor end may also dictate how the sample is received and heard. Most will automatically start playing the file, so that all files appear to be streaming.

If you will not be using a streaming media service (this costs money) but you do not want users to be able to download your files, you can likely prevent them from downloading the file by taking an extra step and creating a seperate reference file (a.k.a. metafile).

When it comes to the audio file format, this again will depend on your needs. MP3 is by far the most popular. Ogg Vorbis, a trendy open-source program, may offer higher sound quality (you be the judge) at a similar file size.

Whichever method you choose, the files will likely have to be converted for use online. They may be “ripped” from an audio CD, converted from a Pro Tools project, etc. There are many free downloadable programs to help you accomplish this or you can even use your iTunes player.

Check out www.downloads.com for options and product reviews. Once you settle on a program, you will likely be walked step-by-step through the process.

Worried about quality? CD quality usually means a sample bit rate of 192 kbs or higher. 128 kbs, the most common rate for MP3s online, is generally considered quite satisfactory when it comes to listening via computer. Burning these files to a CD that is then played on a high quality stereo system may expose weaknesses not otherwise audible. However, the file size gets larger as bit rate increases. Selecting a bit rate of 128 kbs offers a good balance between quality and speed for your user.

Since your sound files may be coming from non-mastered recordings, you might want to make sure you have normalized your files to endure uniform volume throughout. Most of the encoding applications (including those mentioned above) have a menu option that will allow you to do this.

Contact information:

Once a visitor has gleaned what they can from your site, don’t forget to let them know who they should contact if they require further information. If you handle all aspects of your musical career, that may just be your address, phone, fax, and/or email, but if you have a publisher, publicist, booking agent, and/or record label list these, too, along with the name of the person representing you.

Have additional questions or issues you’d like to see addressed? Please post your questions to the forum.

Composing for the Electric Guitar

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Let’s start with the obvious: the electric guitar is not just a loud acoustic guitar. The electric guitar is a three-part instrument comprised of the guitar itself, effects pedals, and the amplifier. Each of these contributes to the sound produced, and the possibilities encompass an enormous sonic range. Like any acoustic instrument, each electric guitar has its own soul that depends on the wood of its body, neck, and fretboard. Unlike an acoustic instrument, its tone is transformed into an electronic signal that can be altered downstream by the assortment of devices it encounters on its way to the speakers and shake up the air.

This article is geared toward composers who would like an overview of some of the electric guitar’s sonic possibilities and how to achieve them. While many of the sounds described here can be specified in a score, others are mentioned just to present some of what goes into the production of the electric guitar’s sound so the composer can get a broader picture of the technology behind the art.

In every guitarist’s world you are likely to find some wonderful and very personal idiosyncrasies: a homemade pedal, a unique playing technique, a rare amplifier, or a strange looking guitar salvaged from a flea market that sounds like nothing else on this or any other planet. So don’t rely on the limited and simplified list presented in this article. I encourage you to meet with the guitarist for whom you are writing and get inside the very personal approach to gear, technique, and style that he or she has developed. Then it is up to you how much you want to compose your piece toward that player’s personal approach versus composing for a wider and more general world of players.

Things electric guitarists do with their hands, part 1: Electronics on the guitar

Acoustic guitars have resonant bodies that amplify the sound of the strings mechanically. Electric guitars use “electronic pickups” to translate the energy of the vibrating string into an electric signal which is then amplified. Pickups are electromagnets fixed onto the body of the guitar and positioned under the strings. The vibration of the metal strings disturbs the magnetic field around the pickups on the guitar, which modulates an electric signal. That signal is ultimately responsible for what you hear. The signal can be colored a number of ways before it even leaves the guitar.

Pickup locations
You probably know that when a string is struck, the center of the string will vibrate most with the fundamental frequency. The second overtone will vibrate most at 1/4 and 3/4 of the string’s distance. These locations of an overtone’s maximal vibration are called “antinodes”.

An electric guitar can have one or more pickups on it. The placement of the pickup will affect the mix of overtones it “hears”. A pickup located near the bridge has a bright sound that is rich in high overtones, with less of the lower overtones since it is so far away from the antinodes of these lower overtones. By contrast, the pickup near the neck has a richer warmer sound.

Guitars with more than one pickup might have a simple switch that selects one, the other, or both. More complex switching systems exist as well, where the signal phase between pickups can be specified. Pickups that are out of phase result in a very bright sparkling tone.

Pickups also have very unique sonic characteristics depending on their design. Single coil pickups found on the Fender Stratocaster for example have a very bright, clear, and penetrating sound. Humbucking pickups, like those found on a Gibson Les Paul for example, have a warmer, thicker sound. If you have a specific tone in mind, you should discuss the possibilities with your performer.

  • Sound file: Chord played first with neck pickup, then with two pickups out of phase, finally with bridge pickup. Download sample.Volume knob
    There are many ways of controlling an electric guitar’s volume, including the general level of the amplifier, settings on pedals, and of course, how hard the strings are struck. Leave it up to the performer how to manage the dynamics written into your score in whatever way is personally appropriate for that player. That said, the volume knob on an electric guitar controls the amplitude of the signal leaving the guitar. Some guitars have one volume knob per pickup, allowing for customized mixing of the signals sent by the pickups, while others have a single master volume. Interestingly, reducing the volume on the guitar sometimes does more than reduce the loudness level. It can influence the guitar’s tone in subtle ways.

    Tone knob
    The tone knob controls the brightness of the guitar signal like the treble knob on a stereo. Some guitars have a separate tone knob for each pickup, while others have one master knob. You can roll the tone knob down and get a very mellow, round sound, or max it out for a very bright sound. Knob positions are numbered 1-10. Don’t let me deter you from writing a piece where tone knob positions are specified and used as a varying compositional element. Just know that the effect will vary dramatically from guitar to guitar, and that the response is non-linear (so 5 is not “half” as bright as 10, for example). If it matters, most composers will probably be happy with the result by just specifying “mellow tone” or “bright tone” in a score.

  • Sound file: Chord played with tone in brightest position, rolled down to zero, then struck again. Download sample.

    Things guitarists can do with their feet: stompboxes and pedals

    There is an enormous consumer-driven universe of pedals and stompboxes which alter the signal after it leaves the guitar and before it hits the amp. Pedals offer smoothly changing control over some sonic effect as the foot presses the pedal forward. Stompboxes do not have this continuous foot control, and instead have a switch that simply turns an effect on or off.

    A reasonably standard arsenal of effects might include a wahwah pedal, volume pedal, and stompboxes that provide distortion, compression, and echo.

    Wahwah Pedal
    A wahwah pedal filters the frequency spectrum of a guitar’s tone, typically sweeping from a mellow tone in the pedal’s heel position to a bright tone in the toe position. Sweeping from heel to toe makes the “wah” sound that gives the pedal its name. Various flavors of wahwah pedals sweep through different ranges of the frequency spectrum and will specify to differing degrees the narrowness of the frequency band they allow to pass through. Wahwah pedals don’t have to be moved to put their signature sound on the music. Some guitarists will leave the pedal in a particular position to achieve a unique tone.

  • Sound file: Chord played with some whammy pedal movement. Download sample.Volume Pedal
    Like the volume knob on the guitar, the volume pedal controls how much signal passes downstream. In the heel position, it may eliminate all or most of the signal. In the toe position it will pass all of the signal through. Besides using it as a hand-freeing way to adjust the dynamics of the guitar, actively sweeping the pedal can achieve rich effects. For example, a guitarist can remove the attack from the sound by plucking while in the heel position and bringing up the volume immediately afterwards. Wilder foot moves on a volume pedal open up more possibilities. A composition that showed cresc/decresc indications with “use
    volume pedal” written nearby would send a clear message to any electric guitarist.
  • Sound file: Short melody played with volume pedal removing attacks of notes. Download sample.Fuzz and overdrive
    Electric guitar distortion comes in many flavors, including “fuzz” which severely colors the frequency spectrum with non-harmonic overtones, and “overdrive” which enriches the spectrum with harmonic overtones, making it sound warm and full. The effects range from a face-melting scream to a clear, sustained, liquidy tone. Playing chords with lots of non-harmonic fuzz will sound awesome, but don’t get too picky about discerning the nuances of intervallic relationships if you do this. Note that distortion can also expand the frequency spectrum of the guitar and invade the spectra of other instruments, possibly masking them in some passages. These may be effects you desire, so let your ears decide as you ask your guitarist to dial through some possibilities. If you have an image in your head of the sound you want, it’s best to describe it in your score rather than direct the guitarist toward a particular solution. For example, seeing “sustained, singing” in a score would direct me toward my overdrive box while “harsh, abrasive, dark tone” might make me reach for a fuzzbox.
  • Sound file: Same chord played three ways: clean, with overdrive, with fuzz box. Download sample.Compression
    A compressor squashes the loudness contour of the guitar signal, reducing the hottest amplitude peaks and boosting the quietest. The effect is a sustained tone: as a guitar signal naturally dies out, the compressor boosts its level. This can be used to sustain the tone of a guitar much longer than it would naturally sound. If I read “clean sustain” in a score, I’d go for my compressor. Note that the compressor will boost everything that is quiet, including finger noise.
  • Sound file: Melody played with compressor on, last note sustained with finger motion. Download sample.Echo
    An echo unit records its input signal and can play it back in a number of ways. Short time delays between echoes create a timbral thickening, while longer delays will be heard rhythmically. Echo units have feedback knobs, which determine how many repeats you’ll hear before the echo dies out. So, just writing “with echo” in a score would be very ambiguous. You really would want to clarify its characteristics. Directions such as “single slap echo” or “with echo, delay timed to triplet, long decay” would get your message across clearly.
  • Sound file: Slap echo and rhythmic echo. Download sample.

    Things electric guitarists do with their hands, Part 2: mechanics

    Whammy bar
    The whammy bar, also called the tremolo bar, is a lever attached to the bridge of some electric guitars. Depressing the bar toward the body of the guitar tilts the bridge toward the strings, loosening tension on the strings, and causing their pitch to drop. Pulling the bar away from the body of the guitar increases tension on the strings and causes their pitch to rise. Musical results like the “dives” heard in heavy metal can be achieved with the whammy bar. Subtler colorations like gentle vibrato are possible too. Whammy bars vary in the range of tensioning they are capable of altering. Some can be depressed so far that the strings go completely floppy, while others are considerably more restricted. If you are composing specifically for whammy bar, meet with your guitarist and find out what the limits are. Otherwise, your score can specify bends and pulls as gestural directions, but don’t expect the range of the bends to be uniform from guitar to guitar.

  • Sound file: Whammy bar depressed fully, then wiggled arbitrarily for amusement. Download sample.Harmonic whistle
    This is a plectrum effect, where the guitarist’s thumb strikes the string immediately after the plectrum strikes it, canceling lower harmonics and resulting in the highest overtones being heard. Sounds great quiet, sounds great loud. I would not write the harmonically induced pitch on the score, as these whistles are a bit unpredictable and vary according to where on the string they are plucked.
  • Sound file: Same pitch played with harmonic whistle, string struck in various locations with pick. Download sample.Tapping
    Two handed tapping is a technique where the guitarist’s right hand hammers down on a string, pushing it down to the fretboard so it sounds its pitch, then releases the string with a little pull, causing it to sound the pitch where the left hand has stopped the string. Tapping can be used to achieve complex high-speed rhythmic patterns, as well as ornamenting a melody with smooth intervallic leaps that would be impractical using a plectrum. If you are going to compose a tapping passage, you really need a map of the strings and fretboard in your head. Make sure that what you are writing is physically possible.
  • Sound file: Two handed melody ending with rapid two-hand tap pattern. Download sample.Scrapes
    Scraping a pick along a string sounds noisy, aggressive, and is a real thrill. If you want a guitarist to scrape a pick along a string, your score might indicate something like, oh, I dunno, “scrape pick along string”.
  • Sound file: Pick scraping along string. Download sample.

    Things electric guitarists can attach, touch, swing, and bang

    E-Bow
    Invented by Greg Heet, the E-Bow (Electronic Bow) is a unique device that is held over string, and without actually touching it, causes it to vibrate indefinitely. The E-Bow gives any steel string infinite sustain. Note that it takes a little moment to bring the string up to speed, so while fast passages on a single string are manageable, melodies that skip strings need to be slower to accommodate the physics of the device. When the ebow gets near the pickup, the tone gets extremely harsh, which is an effect you can play with. More at www.ebow.com.

  • Sound file: Melody played with E-Bow on one string, E-bow moving closer and farther from pickups. Download sample.Alligator clips
    The electric guitar can radically change its sound when its strings are prepared with objects attached directly to the string, placed above them, below them, or braided in between. Alligator clips attached to a string transforms the overtone series of the string into an enharmonic bell-like timbre. Plucking the string on one side or the other of the attached clip results in different sounds.
  • Sound file: Strings with clips, plucked on neck side of clips, then on bridge side of clips. Download sample.Dowels
    Braid a thin dowel between three or fours strings. Striking the dowel will cause it to seesaw and rhythmically sound the strings as it does so. For this it is most practical to lay the guitar flat on a table or lap. Loosen the strings and insert a thick dowel under all six strings for a koto-like effect.
  • Sound file: Two dowels braided through strings, wiggling rhythmically after being struck. Download sample.Chopsticks
    You might also consider striking the strings with chopsticks (i.e. lightweight drum sticks). You can control the ringing of the strings by stuffing some piano felt under them.
  • Sound file: Guitar preparation from alligator clip example, played percussively with two chopsticks. Download sample.Earphone
    Piping a recorded sound source through an earphone placed near a guitar pickup will transmit that signal through the guitar. Swinging the earphone over the pickup in a pendular fashion will bring the sound in periodically, depending on the length of cable from which it is swinging.
  • Sound file: A recording of a guitar drone played on a tape recorder with earphone plugged in, earphone swinging over pickups. Download sample.One last word on notation
    Many of these effects are best described in your score using simple language. Avoid making up new symbols when an instruction such as “wiggle whammy bar spastically throughout passage” is clearer than a newly invented wiggly arrow. Note however that there is a set of symbols that is generally available to notate common effects. Guitar Player magazine has a good source online in PDF format at: www.guitarplayer.com/Notation.pdf.

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    Nick Didkovsky
    Photo by Zach Veilleux

    Acknowledgements
    Thanks to the friends and colleagues from whom I’ve culled some of the ideas presented here: Chris Murphy, Bill Horvitz, Rene Lussier, Fred Frith, Mark Stewart, and Keith Rowe. Brilliant guitarists all…my love and respect.

    Bio
    Nick Didkovsky has never owned an acoustic guitar. His recent CD “BONE, Uses Wrist Grab” (Cuneiform Rune 178) with Hugh Hopper and John Roulat serves up a variety of slawed, beaten, and fried electric guitars. Nick can be investigated further at www.doctornerve.org.

Why You Might Want to Start a Record Label

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If you’re a musician or composer, this might be an extremely opportune time to get involved in the recording industry, despite the many problems currently plaguing it. Why do I say this? Because, with the exception of the early 1950s, it’s never been easier.

As the major multi-nationals combine and contract, they run the risk of turning into black holes, gaining extreme critical mass but without the attendant sales. In short, they’ve become so large and unwieldy that they constantly have to fire “excess” personnel, yet their profits don’t seem to rise accordingly. You might therefore contemplate a relationship with an established independent label that releases music compatible with yours. There are several excellent Indies earning modest profits, and many are run by good, honest people. Labels that release some music by contemporary American composers include Albany, Bridge, Koch, Naxos, New World, Nonesuch (my old alma mater which, although owned by a major, operates pretty much like an independent), Reference, and Telarc.

However, in this age of do-it-yourself, now is a great time to consider starting your own label. The cost of entry is comparatively modest, and the process is not too complicated.

First, if you’re really sure you want to establish your own company, come up with a unique label name. You should do a Google search to be sure it’s not in use, and also check the web site of the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (800-786-9199). My grandfather once suggested—tongue only partly in cheek—that one should choose a name whose first letter is near the front of the alphabet, since many accountants pay their bills in alphabetical order. Thus Aardvark is likely to get paid quicker than Zorro. Once you’re in business you should register the name with the same office.

You’ll also want to secure a domain name, whether it’s your own name of the name of the label, which might be preferable. You can check availability of the preferred name by doing a “whois” search. Then go to an Internet registrar with whom you can register the name.

If you’re going to be signing any other artists, or if you’ll need to have contracts drafted, you should interview and then retain an attorney familiar with the legal ramifications of the music industry. You should also read All You Need to Know About the Music Business by Donald S. Passman. This frequently revised and updated book is easy to read despite its topic, because Passman writes in a very relaxed, conversational style.

You should also confer with your attorney and accountant as to the best legal structure for your label. Should it be a Sole Proprietorship, Partnership, an LLC (Limited Liability Corporation), a Subchapter S Corporation, or something else? Your decision will be based mostly on the extent of personal liability you might be exposed to, and the tax advantages or disadvantages that best suit your circumstances.

Briefly, a Corporation is a legal entity and is the most complex and the most expensive business to set-up. It might not be the appropriate choice if you’re going to be predominantly self-financed, are flying solo, or have only one or two partners. On the other hand, in areas other than fraud, it provides you the greatest protection from liability. You establish a corporation at the state level, but the rules vary with each state. Because it’s a business entity, a corporation files its own tax returns.

A Subchapter S-Corp is also a legal entity, is somewhat easier to establish, and will shield you to some extent from personal liability. It requires that regular reports be filed with your state. Profits and losses from an S-Corp flow through proportionately to the personal tax returns of the shareholders who control it. It also requires that if a shareholder works for the company, and if there’s a profit, he must pay himself wages that are comparable to normal such salaries for the position, the type of business, and the geographical region.

In both instances, since the corporation is an entity and not a person, going bankrupt doesn’t affect the personal assets of its officers.

A Partnership is a business with more than one participant that has not filed formal papers with a governmental agency. It’s simple to construct and maintain, but the business owners are personally liable for debts, lawsuits, etc. Although it’s not necessary to have a contract between the partners, it’s a good idea that there be one which specifies responsibilities and ownership, what happens if there’s a major disagreement between them, and how to divide the assets if the partnership is dissolved.

A Sole Proprietorship is the cheapest to set up and the easiest to organize. You are free to make your own decisions or mistakes, receive all income to keep or reinvest, and profits flow through to your personal tax return. Typical employee benefits such as health insurance are not directly deductible from your business income. The biggest drawback is that it offers no protection from liability, and going bankrupt will affect your personal credit status.

A Limited Liability Corporation is somewhat similar to a partnership. It can be established by one or more shareholders and has certain tax advantages. Most important, it provides the liability protection of a corporation. It’s somewhat more complicated to establish than a sole proprietorship, but is a lot easier than an S-Corp or C-Corp.

Presumably you already have some kind of office, whether it’s in your home or elsewhere. This is likely to be sufficient, at least for the early days, as long as you have reliable access to a computer, printer, phone, fax, copier, and the Internet.

I strongly urge you to write a business plan, even if you’re the label’s sole form of financial support. The process of constructing the plan will force you to think over and make many decisions about your label—its size, the genre of music, how you’ll operate, etc. It’s also imperative that you develop a comprehensive budget, at least for the first year of operations, although I encourage you to project a year or two further. A well-structured business plan will assist you in raising funds, but more importantly, it will be the roadmap for how you’ll operate.

There are a number of books on the subject as well as a great deal of software to assist you. A Google search for “business plans” revealed hundreds of web sites on the subject, many with sample plans and outlines. If you decide to purchase business plan writing software, be sure it conforms to your unique label and what you want to achieve with it. Not all “canned” plans will work for the record industry, in fact probably very few will. Make use of the ideas and formats, not the content.

But whatever tools you decide on, be sure that you cover your subject extensively yet not exhaustively. Some business plans are extraordinarily lengthy, detailing every conceivable circumstance of the company’s operations. And although I think your internal operating plan should be comprehensive, the business plan shouldn’t be so long that it’s unlikely to be read thoroughly by potential investors. Fifteen to thirty pages should be more than enough, and in some circumstances ten to fifteen may be sufficient.

Also bear in mind that the document will vary depending on the type and size of record company you want to build. For example, if you’re not planning to seek outside funding, it’ll primarily be used as your road map and can be fairly brief. However, if you’re planning to raise money from family, friends, or inde
pendent investors for a somewhat more substantial label, it’ll need to reflect more of the business and mechanical aspects of the label’s operation. Finally, if you need to raise substantial capital, it’ll have to be considerably more comprehensive.

And don’t be afraid that someone’s going to steal your ideas. Other than talent, not much new has happened in the last few decades in regard to how record companies operate. So you’re unlikely to be ripped off by showing your business plan to interested parties. Chances are nothing you’ve come up with will be enormously revolutionary.

Check with your attorney as to whether you’ll need a business license. It’s usually a matter of local statutes, which he should be familiar with.

You should also consult with a qualified accountant, preferably a CPA. She can help advise on the legal structure—tax wise—and can help you set up your books, for which you’ll need a simple accounting program such as Quicken.

After you’ve set up this basic infrastructure you can start working on the first recording. Budget it carefully to avoid expensive surprises, and wherever possible, try to contain costs.

You can duplicate CDs one by one in your own computer, or buy a relatively inexpensive duplicator. But, better still, use the services of an independent pressing plant to manufacture CDs. Many of these suppliers can also print the graphics, or you can use a local printer. Just don’t manufacture more than you can afford and are reasonably certain you can sell.

So once you’ve got your first recorded project, how will you go about selling it? Other than raising start-up funds, this is probably the most difficult and critical part of establishing a label.

And this involves marketing, about which many whole books have been written. The role of marketing is to encourage purchases of your music through media awareness—publicity, radio airplay, print and radio interviews, etc. It’s much easier to say than to do, and requires a thoughtfully developed marketing plan. It’s not necessary that you do this by yourself since there are many excellent independent marketing experts available for moderate fees.

Be sure to launch a web site. It needn’t be complex, but it must contain the salient facts about the label and its recordings. Make short, highly compressed samples of the music available for people to listen to using at least one of the RealAudio, QuickTime or Windows Media players. Display the cover art. If you’re a touring artist—strongly recommended for all musicians—post performance itineraries and photos.

Certainly make it possible for interested customers to buy your music from your site. There are many excellent companies who offer online “shopping cart” services at modest fees that can handle the process. You might also want to make your music available for sale at Amazon.com. And without fail, sell your records at all performances, showcases, etc. Until you’ve amassed a few titles, you can make your CDs available for purchase at CD Baby.

In order to commercially distribute a CD, whether through CD Baby, Amazon, or one of the larger distributors who specialize in recordings, it’s essential that you print a valid UPC bar code on the back of the package. CD Baby can supply one, or you can apply for your label’s unique UCC membership number from the Uniform Code Council. However, this will set you back about $750.

The UCC will supply you with your leading and next five digits and you will supply the rest of the catalog number. Let’s say for example that the UCC supplies you with 099999. Your first release might then be 09999-91001-29.

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Note that in the above example the catalog number (five digits) begins with the last digit that you get from the UCC: a nine. The next four numbers can be anything you want, but it’s best that you create a sequential set starting with 1001. The number after the second hyphen is the product configuration number. For example, 1 stands for LP, 2 for CD, 4 for Cassette, 7 for vinyl singles, etc. The final number, a small 9, is a check digit and is usually created by the bar code software that you or your designer should have. The very first number, in this case a zero, is a number system character, and is supplied by the UCC.

If you buy one of the bar coding programs you won’t need to order special film for each new release. Look for software that draws bar codes in the “UPC-A” format that is the one used by the record industry. You should also be aware that the music industry might change to a 13-digit number in the next few years, so try to buy software that anticipates and can handle such a change.

Once you’ve got three or more titles under your belt, you might consider making a deal with a qualified independent distributor whose primary function is to get music through the supply pipeline to retail customers. You’ll still have to do the bulk of the work though. Such distributors include Allegro, Alliance, City Hall, Koch, and Navarre. Do your homework by talking to colleagues and requesting recommendations. Then do some Internet research to see which distributors are handling labels most like your own. Call them up and later send them sample CDs, but let them know you’re doing so, otherwise they’re liable to get tossed into the round file. Follow up by asking what they think of your music and what they think they can do for your label.

There are quite a few Web sites that can offer your music for downloadable sale. Apple’s iTunes Music Store, RealAudio, and Wal-Mart are examples, and more services are emerging weekly. Just be sure you know who you’re dealing with, and don’t sign any contracts without consulting with your lawyer.

How much time and effort any of this will take is up to you, being a matter of how intensely you’re willing to be involved. The more you’re prepared to do, the more you’ll learn, and the less it will cost. It all depends on your goals as a composer and how much a concerted effort can enhance and support your career. However, time spent developing a label to further your music will take time away from writing. So you’ll need to strike a balance that works for you.

Success in starting a label is not guaranteed, but if you keep the costs under control, there’s little to lose, but much to gain.

***

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Keith Holzman is the principal of Solutions Unlimited, a management consulting firm specializing in the recording industry. He was President of ROM Records, Managing Director and Executive Vice President of Discovery Records, Senior Vice President of Elektra Records, and Director of Nonesuch.

He is also the author of the newly published book The Complete Guide to Starting a Record Company, a primer that takes readers by the hand and guides them through the many steps involved in building an independent record label. It’s available exclusively at http://www.recordcompanystartup.com.

Keith can be reached by email at: [email protected].

Writing for Percussion: Mallets and Related Technical Issues

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The mallets that a percussionist uses can make the difference between whether an instrument sounds superb or horrible. Part of the art of playing bar percussion instruments is learning which mallets to choose for a given situation. Since mallets are constantly being invented, altered and discontinued, this is a lifelong process. Nevertheless, percussionists can develop an acute sense of which mallets will be appropriate, often just by looking at them or knowing who made them. Sometimes, very experienced percussionists can also discern the type of mallets being used while listening to a recording.

Prior to the 20th century, mallet choice was somewhat limited. Wood, natural rubber and latex were probably the most common types of materials that mallet heads were made of. Other less-common materials that were used were metal (for orchestra bells), sponge, mallets with felt coverings and occasionally yarn-covered mallets. Due to the limited availability of mallets in general, and also because of the initial novelty of using bar percussion instruments in Western concert music at all, mallet choices were often not specified unless something out of the ordinary was wanted by the composer. One of the first composers to ask for specific mallets is Hector Berlioz. He asked the timpanists to use sponge-covered timpani mallets in his Symphonie fantastique (1830). Claude Debussy gave a special direction for one of the percussionists to use timpani mallets on a suspended cymbal in his orchestral work, Nocturnes (1899). Before 1900, it is difficult to find any written music that indicates mallet choice.

The specification of exotic mallet choices in late 19th and early 20th-century music directly coincides with the composition of timbrally-oriented works of many other composers of the time, including Gustav Mahler, Igor Stravinsky, Alexander Skryabin, Sergei Prokofiev, Dmitri Shostakovich and Béla Bartók, among others. In fact, just when bar percussion instruments were beginning to be used regularly in concert music, many composers began writing music that used these instruments as an integral melodic and harmonic part of the music rather than merely as reinforcement or enhancement of the main, non-percussion parts. Since composers of the day did not specify exactly which mallets were needed, the choice was left up to the percussionist. Then and now, clear and effective scoring often compensate for ambiguous or absent mallet choices in the music.

Synthetic materials such as plastic and rubber were first widely used for mallet heads with the arrival of the 20th century. The use of these new mallet head materials enabled manufacturers to make mallets with much finer gradations than were possible before. With the introduction of synthetics, a new world of timbral possibilities became available. Composers and percussionists could now make even finer distinctions of dynamic and attack, with gradations ranging from extra soft all the way to extra hard even within the same family of mallets.

Although some composers give specific instructions as to which general mallets to use, this often does more harm than good. Many factors can influence how the mallets will sound, such as the instruments and type of mallets being used, the hall, the conductor, etc. If “hard yarn mallets” are called for, a variety of different brands or makes of mallets may be tried before the right mallets are chosen. Percussionists will often have a variety of mallets that sound good and feel comfortable to use in the performance spaces where they play.

The differences between one brand of mallet and another can be dramatic. For example, a medium rubber mallet made by Mike Balter Mallets might sound more like a hard rubber mallet made by Musser, or a soft rubber mallet made by another company. There are many factors that determine how hard or soft mallets will be. Some of these factors are the size and shape of the mallet head, the material used, the density of the material, the flexibility or non-flexibility of the mallet shafts, and as mentioned above, the instrument being used and the performance space.

It is also important to consider whether the percussionist will need to change mallets or not when switching between two or more instruments. There is a passage in David Felder’s Six Poems From Neruda’s “Alturas…” (1990-92) for which there are four possible solutions for switching between the vibraphone and orchestra bells. The first option is for the percussionist to use the same mallets on the orchestra bells, but this might not be the best option since medium yarn mallets on the orchestra bells will not provide an optimum sound. The second option is for the percussionist to switch mallets very quickly. At his indicated tempo of quarter note = 120, this would be very difficult, or at least somewhat tricky. Since there is a four-note vibraphone chord that occurs right before the passage, four mallets need to be held, so the third option could be for the percussionist to hold six mallets, two of them being orchestra bell mallets. Since most percussionists currently do not yet play with six mallets, this is probably not a feasible option. (Although a thorough exploration of different grips and playing techniques–i.e. Stevens, Burton, traditional, six-mallet, etc.–is not covered here, it is worth considering within the context of 20th-century bar percussion development.) The last option is to divide the part in two, with one percussionist playing the vibraphone and another playing the orchestra bells. If this option is taken, the problem is solved. (A few years ago, I had the fortune of recording the Percussion 1 Part for Felder’s CD, a pressure triggering dreams (Mode 89). This particular part was in fact divided between Patricia Cudd and myself.)

It is quite common in modern Western music for percussionists to be asked to play one bar percussion instrument immediately after playing another, or even while playing another. In fact, percussionists are often asked to play many instruments at once, especially in multi-percussion set-ups. There are many examples of this in the music of American composer Charles Wuorinen, in works such as New York Notes (1982) and Janissary Music (1966). In these works, since there is often little or no time to pick up or put down mallets, the percussionist is often asked to play two or more instruments at once with the same or a mixed set of mallets. If the instruments are similar—such as the marimba and vibraphone—this works out fine. However, if the instruments are diverse and the composer requires a variety of mallets to achieve an optimum sound, using the same set of mallets could prove to be difficult. In Janissary Music, the percussionist must choose mallets that work well on as many of the instruments as possible. Wuorinen asks the percussionists to use a soft mallet on the low metal instruments and hard mallets (i.e. metal mallets) on the high metal instruments. The sound of one or more of the instruments could be slightly compromised if appropriate mallets are not used. There are often ways to work around this dilemma such as holding three or more mallets, using double-headed mallets or using mallets that have one sound when played soft and another when played loud (i.e. two-tone mallets).

At the beginning of the 21st century, it is fairly common for percussionists to use double-headed mallets. Some companies make mallets that have yarn heads on one end and plastic heads on the other, and there are other double-headed combinations as well. Some possible double-headed combinations are: yarn head on one end, plastic head on the other; yarn head on one end, d
rumstick on the other; plastic head on one end, drumstick on the other, and yarn mallet on one end, rubber head on the other. Although these combination mallets are not as common, it is possible for percussionists to acquire them or make them if they do not already own them.

Part of the art of being a percussionist is to know which mallets to choose for the right situation. Since composers can almost never determine what all of the variables will be when writing a piece of music, they must rely on percussionists to be well-informed as to which mallets are available and which ones will be appropriate for a given piece of music. One way some composers have tried to deal with the ambiguity of the issue of mallet choice is by specifying exact types and brands of mallets.

John Beck calls for specific mallets because he is certain that this model of mallet will work for this effect. (Beck, also a well-known percussionist who is currently on the faculty of the Eastman School of Music, has decades of experience and is well aware of specifically which mallets will work best for a given situation. Composers who are trained percussionists perhaps have an edge over non-percussionist composers in this area.) In Jazz Variants (1972), he asks Player I to bend the note on vibes by placing an [Musser] M-3 Marimba mallet on he node of the bar, striking the bar with a Vibe mallet (Damper off) and pulling the M-3 mallet (with pressure) through the remaining length of the bar. Although the specific model of mallets that Beck calls for were available when the piece was written, they are not available anymore, at least under the same model number. The best that the percussionist who is playing the Player I part can do is to research and approximate—if no examples of the mallets exist—which mallets will work best for this effect. The main problem here is that mallet manufacturers sometimes change model numbers for different models of mallets. Specifications may change on how hard or soft the mallets are, even within the same make brand of mallets. Manufacturers also go in and out of business, so specifying exact models of mallets in a piece of music is not recommended.

The best way to deal with the issue of mallet choice is to have some sort of general expectations of the percussionist. If the “optimum sound” is wanted, as is often the case, then usually nothing needs to be said: the percussionist can be expected to use mallets that sound best on the instrument in the hall in which the instrument is being played. If a special sound is wanted, such as soft yarn mallets on the low end of the marimba, then they can be specified in the part. Other than making general specifications, it is most helpful to add a description of the desired sound if necessary.

The seven basic types of mallets to consider when deciding which mallets to write for or use for a piece of bar percussion music are yarn, cord, rubber, plastic, latex, wood and metal. Although there are many variations such as different types of metal, rubber, plastic and even different types of yard and chord, these are the general types that most percussionists own or can acquire.

Certain mallets are generally used for certain instruments, situations and dynamic levels. The following chart gives an idea of which mallets are used for which instruments, and/or for which situations:

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Table 2.1: chart of mallet use on Western bar percussion instruments according to different variables
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1. Yarn

Yarn mallets come in various hardnesses, generally extra soft, medium-soft, medium, medium-hard, hard, extra hard and even two-tone mallets. Some lines of mallets include medium soft and medium hard mallets. For marimba music, these mallets are often the first mallets a percussionist will try to use, especially for solo or chamber music playing. Using yarn mallets generally guarantees that there will be very little or no impact sound when the mallet heads strike the bars of the instrument.

2. Cord

Cord mallets often have fewer gradations than yarn mallets. These mallets often come in soft, medium and hard. Cord mallets are generally harder than yarn mallets and have a firmer impact sound. These mallets could be described as sounding closest to being a hybrid between rubber mallets and yarn mallets. As shown above in Table 2.1, these mallets are generally used for the vibraphone but are also often used on other instruments such as the marimba. In general, yarn mallets are usually used on instruments with wood bars—especially the marimba—and cord mallets are most often used for instruments with metal bars, especially the vibraphone. The reason for this is that cord is a tougher material than yarn and can withstand the harder impact and rougher texture of un-polished vibraphone bars better than yarn. Yarn mallets tend to produce a fuller tone on marimba than cord mallets. However, cord mallets usually produce a more pronounced attack than yarn on any instrument, often times because they are more tightly wrapped than yarn mallets. The gradation between hard and soft cord mallets is also usually more slight than with yarn mallets.)

3. Rubber

As with yarn mallets, rubber mallets come in various hardnesses, generally extra soft, soft, medium, hard and extra hard. Some lines of mallets include medium soft and medium hard mallets. The relative softness and hardness can vary dramatically between different mallets by different companies. However, depending on the instrument and the range, it can generally be assumed that a soft rubber mallet will produce a relatively soft sound with a soft impact sound. Rubber mallets generally have a harder impact than yarn or cord mallets.

Percussionists often choose mallets based on how they feel, and also by whether the mallets produce a “tick” sound or not. Mallet tick is the impact sound of the mallet head connecting with the bars. Percussionists generally want to avoid this tick sound as much as possible, as it interferes with the general sound of the notes being produced by the bars. Rubber mallets can produce a slight “tick” sound if not properly coupled with the right instrument or appropriate range on the instrument.

I will emphasize here that the hardest yarn mallet will usually have a noticeable impact sound, whereas the softest rubber mallets will have little or no impact sound. It is a good idea to hear percussionists play with various mallets on different instruments and in different performance spaces in order to have an idea of what they sound like.

4. Plastic

Although there are different types of plastic that are used to make these mallets, there is no general hardness scale within one type of plastic. Rather, different types of plastic are harder or softer compared to one another. For example, mallets with acrylic plastic heads are harder than those made with “Low Density Poly” heads by the same company. Most plastic mallets sound relatively similar; percussionists usually choose one set over the other based on the size of the heads and the subtle variations between the different types of plastics. It is especially wise for composers not to specify which plastic mallets should be used since the sound difference between one set and another can be very minute.

5. Latex

Latex mallets are often used for Guatemalan
marimba playing, but they are also sometimes used in Western-style concert music. They often produce a slight “slap” sound, especially with the softer models. This is the result of the many layers of latex wrapped around the mallet head. The sound of latex mallets is very similar to that of rubber mallets, with the same general scale of gradations. Latex mallets generally tend to be a little softer than rubber mallets: the softest latex mallets are usually noticeably softer than the softest rubber mallets.

6. Wood

Mallets with wood heads are used much less often than they used to be and they have many disadvantages. Wood heads crack, they can only be used on instruments with bar materials harder than the wood heads themselves and they usually cannot be used on instruments with metal bars. They were used more frequently before the wide availability of plastic or rubber mallets.

7. Metal

Mallets with metal heads are used for only two types of instruments, orchestra bells and crotales. They cannot be used for vibraphones or instruments with wooden bars because they would damage the bars. The two types of metal most often used are brass and aluminum. Brass mallets are usually used for orchestra bells: brass mallet heads have a lower density than the metal used for orchestra bell bars. Similarly, mallets with aluminum heads are often used for crotales since they are made of a lower density metal than that of the crotales. Mallets with aluminum heads seem to be used less frequently than mallets with brass heads; this might be due to their lightness and relatively thin sound. On both orchestra bells and crotales, mallets with plastic heads are used quite often, sometimes more so than mallets with metal heads.

Although composers sometimes suggest mallets in their music, the choice of whether to use mallets with metal or plastic heads is usually left up to the percussionist. Percussionists will choose the most appropriate mallets according to various factors such as the size of the hall, the volume needed, the “feel” of the mallets in their hands and whether the mallets produce a “tick” sound or not. Composers are wise to let percussionists choose their own mallets, except when a sound that is out of the ordinary is needed.

Mallet Shafts

As with most aspects of percussion instrument and mallet manufacturing, there is no real standard for mallet shaft length. The only real trend regarding this is that mallet shaft lengths generally became longer.

Once percussionists began to play with four mallets, the length of mallet shafts generally increased due to the extra length needed to push the mallets further down in the hand. This development was probably initially geared toward “cross-stick” grips such as the “traditional grip” and the Burton Grip.

During the 20th century, there were many experiments with different types of mallet shaft materials. Two companies in particular, J. C. Deagan and Musser, successfully manufactured mallets with shafts made of synthetic material. The Deagan mallets are no longer manufactured, but mallets with Two-Stage Fiberglass handles are still made by both the Musser and Mike Balter companies. (The synthetic material made by the J. C. Deagan company tended to warp slightly; this may be why they were discontinued.) These “two-stage” handles are made of a fiberglass “core” with a rubber handle. This produces mallet shafts that are virtually indestructible and also have a comfortable grip with a little bit of “give”.

The following photo shows an example of these mallets:

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Musser mallets with Two-Stage Fiberglass handles

Synthetic shafts are particularly useful for school percussion sections in which the mallets might be subjected to extreme temperatures, humidity or rough use. This is a valid consideration, since natural materials such as rattan and wood tend to be affected by weather and have more of a tendency to break if not properly cared for.

The most common types of mallet shaft materials are currently wood and rattan. Stiff shafts made of wood are often the preferred choice of percussionists playing marimba and vibraphone, especially if they are using four or more mallets. The refined hand movements needed to manipulate four or more mallets necessitate the use of stiff shafts so that the mallet heads do not move around unnecessarily. Rattan shafts, if they are not stiff enough, could make manipulating more than one mallet in each hand excessively difficult. However, vibraphonists and some marimbists sometimes use mallets with very stiff shafts made of rattan. Rattan shafts are more commonly used for two-mallet playing, and especially by orchestral percussionists. The benefit of using shafts made of rattan is that they are a little more flexible, and therefore are a little easier on the hands. Less hand movement is necessary if the rattan handles provide a little bit of give.

As with many aspects of mallets, shaft material and length are personal choices, since these factors directly influence the way the mallets feel in the percussionist’s hands. The shaft material and length also determine how much work the percussionist has to do in order to achieve a good sound. Too much flex might cause the mallets to move around too much, too little flex might make the percussionist work harder than necessary to move the mallets.

In general, the material the shafts are made of often has very little to do with the actual sound of the mallets, especially if used by a seasoned percussionist. However, depending on the instrument used, the shaft material (e.g. very stiff wooden dowels versus a material like flexible rattan), the mallet head material and the shaft length, the mallet heads may give more or less contact sound when striking the bars.

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Table 2.3: approximate contact time of mallet heads on bars—relationship between different variables, i.e. head material and shaft material

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As illustrated by the chart above, the harder the material of the mallet heads and the more stiff the shafts, the more chance there will be contact sound on the bars or more contact time of the mallet heads on the bars. The length of the shafts also plays a role: the shorter the shafts, the stiffer they will be and the less they will be able to rebound. This will cause the mallet heads to be in contact with the bars for a split second longer. Percussionists compensate for this by consciously lifting the heads away from the bars more quickly. The stiffer the shafts and the harder the heads, the more they might lift. This, coupled with the type of material the heads are made of, directly influences how much contact sound or “tick” might occur. Although the contact time could probably be measured in fractions of a second, the impact sound of the mallet striking the bars will definitely sound different if two dramatically different mallets are used on the same instrument, but with the same amount of lift. This may seem like a trivial detail to a non-percussionist, but too much contact sound
can make bars sound somewhat un-pitched and non-resonant.

Other Shaft Materials

There are a few instances where the shaft material does have an affect on the sound. For example, the American percussionist Julie Spencer wrote a work called Tribeca Sunflower (ca. 1990) that requires the marimba to have a “buzz effect.” The mallet manufacturer Mike Balter makes mallets designed specifically for this piece with thin dowels surrounding the handle. When performing with these mallets, the thin dowels slap against the handle to create a “buzz” effect. Although it will not sound quite the same, this could be an alternative to playing on a bar percussion instrument altered with other materials (i.e. paper, aluminum foil) or instruments with buzzing membranes in the resonators.

Conclusion

The 20th century saw the introduction of seemingly endless varieties of mallets. Although there are many types to choose from, certain types of mallets are definitely more appropriate for certain situations than others. It is usually wise for composers to let the percussionist choose which mallets will be appropriate for a given situation unless a special sound is desired.

You Don’t Pay, We Don’t Play? Questioning Entry Fees



Skimming a listing of composer competitions, you can’t help but wonder about announcements like this one:

“The composition must be for solo flute and string orchestra, 10-15 minutes in duration. There is a cash award of $500 plus a premiere performance by the ABC String Ensemble. There is a $50 application fee. Composer must be available to attend the premiere.”

Even if your background in economics is limited, a skeptical alarm bell begins to ring—loudly. It doesn’t take a math wiz, after all, to figure out that the first ten applications through the door could effectively front the prize money. Now, there are also issues of paying for staff time, a score review processes, and all the costs that go into the actual performance, but this all leads quickly to a very basic question: Is it fair to ask composers to fund the entire process so that their work has a chance of being performed?

Living in a capitalist society with limited funding for arts organizations, the realist understands that even new music organizations with altruistic intentions need to raise competition funding from somewhere, but as an industry we need to look closely at when competition entrance fees are appropriate and what amount is reasonable to help offset those costs. Shifting the financial burden onto already underpaid and under-appreciated composers is not a fair or viable solution.

To charge or not to charge?

Tellingly, both ASCAP and BMI, composers’ rights organizations that each hold their own internal competitions, have a policy against charging any entry fee whatsoever, though a SASE is requested to defray the cost of returning materials to composers.

“At the BMI Foundation, we wouldn’t launch [a competition] until we had enough money to make it happen. It doesn’t make sense to do it otherwise,” says Ralph Jackson, president of the BMI Foundation, assistant vice president of Classical Music Relations, and director of the BMI Student Composer Awards. “My feeling about it is that if you’re going to run some sort of competition for composers, that if you don’t have enough money to pay for the cost to run it and to give the prize, you shouldn’t give it.”

Fran Richard, vice president and director of Concert Music at ASCAP, expresses identical concerns. “We do not ourselves do this [charge for entry] and we hope that those people who hold out such opportunities to composers find the means to fund that effort without resorting to making the composers chip in various fees that cover the cost. It isn’t just the administrative cost but it is particularly onerous when the prize money itself is generated through these fees.”

An Acceptable Gamble?

Jeffrey Nytch, composer and managing director of the Pittsburgh New Music Ensemble, sees a distinction between competitions that are worth the price of entry and those that are clearly a fundraiser for the parent organization. Nytch offered this look into the operations of PNME’s Harvey Gaul Competition to illustrate his point. An excerpt of our conversation is included below.—MS

MS: I’d like to hear your thoughts on how competition entrance fees should be determined in general and how specifically they are used by your organization to support the Harvey Gaul competition. Do they cover your expenses or only defray a portion, etc.?

JN: I’m happy to say that the Harvey Gaul Competition is a situation where I can honestly justify the entry fee of $20. In the case of PNME, whose prime mission is to support the commissioning and premiering of new work, we have always strived to make the payoff for the competition something significant. We receive funds from the Harvey Gaul endowment that cover the administrative expenses of the competition; these expenses are nominal anyway, and any organization that claims it must raise several thousand dollars to cover the costs of mounting the competition are either not using their money very well or are just plain fibbing. In 2004 I’ll spend a few hundred dollars sending out postcards to our mailing list, we’ll take full advantage of Internet postings and newsletters, and we’ll pay a modest honorarium to our adjudication panel. Total costs: about $500. We feel strongly that 100% of entry fees should go towards supporting a nice commission fee (though they only fund about 60% of the commission amount). In addition, since the PNME Artistic Director serves on the adjudication panel, non-winners are often asked to write new works for PNME as well or have their existing work performed by the company.

Until now, the first prize has been a $3,000 commission and premiere from PNME. Travel and accommodations for the premiere are covered. Still, we felt that we wanted to make the winning award even more significant, because we recognize that even $3,000 was not likely to attract the finest composers — and therefore would keep us from fully accomplishing our mission. I short, we want to perform the best music possible, and we want to compensate composers at a level worthy of their talent. So, in 2004, the next Harvey Gaul competition will be announcing a $6,000 commission for the winner. We feel this will raise the stature of the competition and begin to attract the “top drawer” talent that we wish to showcase during our seasons.

In addition, [the entries] will continue to be a pool from which other commissions and performances will arise, something that benefits composers and PNME alike. For a $20 entry fee, that strikes me as a reasonable trade-off. I would be against raising the fee any further, even if it meant we had to contribute some operating funds to keep it going. The Harvey Gaul is not in any way a fundraiser for PNME; we consider it a fundraiser for composers, and one that results in significant new works being added to the repertoire.

MS: I know some people don’t submit scores to competitions that charge a fee. In your experience, do you think the fee effectively keeps some composers from applying? Is that a necessary/acceptable risk from PNME standpoint?

JN: Again, I think that’s a function of the size of the prize and the stature of the competition. I’m sure our fee keeps some from applying (either because of financial limitations or just on principle), but I think that may be more than offset by those who might not normally enter a competition but will give us a try because they know that, 1) they’ll get a first-rate performance and, 2) the prize money is considerable. We’ve had several composers tell us that they don’t normally enter competitions but they did so with us for one or both of those reasons. So I think it varies.

MS: Some of the people I’ve been speaking with take exception to entry fees of any kind. But how would you respond to a cash-strapped composer who asked why he/she should be responsible for contributing to raising the prize money?

JN: Well, it depends on how much you want to gain. If paying a reasonable fee helps raise the pot for the winner, I may view that as an acceptable gamble. I’m also making a contribution “to the cause,” even if I’m not the winner. I’m very practical about these things: if I think it’s a reasonable gamble then I’ll pony up my $20 and takes my chances. I realize and respect the principle that we composers already are under-paid and our success is due almost entirely to our own ability to promote ourselves…it’s a rotten deal and it doesn’t say much for our culture. But, that’s the way it is. A lot of composers like to sit around and complain about it, but I’ll just go with the practical side: Hey, I don’t have to enter. If I want to, an
d I want a shot at the award, then I’ll pay the price of admission.

Also, there are a lot of competitions out there with no fees—especially for younger or emerging composers. So it’s not like their voice is being shut out entirely. I would certainly not be in favor of all competitions charging fees…that would be counterproductive. But, as part of the range of available options, I think some competitions with no fees and some with fees but larger prizes is a healthy mix.

MS: I’m interested in the fact that non-winners are often asked to write new works for PNME as well. Was this a stated goal of the competition when it started or just a side effect?

JN: A pleasant side effect, I believe, although I was not around when the competition was inaugurated. But since we are constantly on the lookout for new talent, the competition is an excellent way to become acquainted with all sorts of people who might not otherwise cross our paths.

Jackson agrees. “Sometimes you get the feeling the money involved in these application fees is going to be the prize money, and what that’s doing is creating a prize off the back of the losing composers.”

The system of fees does have its ill effects. There’s no shortage of disgruntled composers who have abandoned the competition circuit completely, or at least the fee-based ones.

When I asked for a reason, one young composer responded, “Do you mean stories like paying $60 and receiving tapes back which obviously haven’t even been opened? And when, out of hundreds of “anonymous” scores, somehow the winners lists of particular competitions are always name composers and/or students affiliated with the particular organization or school?” Though his answer hints at perceived problems with competitions that stretch far beyond the cost of entry, with money and music on the line, the impression of the situation was one of adding economic insult to artistic injury.

Buying Your 15 Minutes

Composer representative Howard Stokar acknowledges the reality that young composers just starting out might feel compelled to pay some fees to have their music reviewed by colleagues and performing ensembles and to pick up some measure of initial recognition through these types of awards and commissions. “There are exceptions one can make, but you have to be careful,” he cautions. Ultimately however, he sees fees as a fairly slippery slope. “It’s screwing young people, that’s how I take it, composers who feel they wouldn’t get something otherwise. And composers are basically so badly treated in general as opposed to other people in the arts because there is so little money in it,” he says.

In an effort towards education, composer advocacy organizations such as the American Composers Forum and the American Music Center have adopted a policy of cautioning composers when advertising opportunities with entry fees. For example, the AMC’s Opportunity Update carries the note that the organization “does not encourage the charging of entry fees” and that it “strongly objects to organizations that charge fees in a manner that is misleading or inappropriate, such as charging relatively high entry fees in order to fund the cost of the actual award or performance or, worse, charging entry fees while reserving the right not to award any prize at all.”

When Carnegie Hall announced a call for applications to the John Harbison/Dawn Upshaw Workshop for Composers and Singers, some in the industry questioned the $30 non-refundable application fee. Though this opportunity does have a workshop and commission attached to it and no tuition is to be charged, the question arose as to why a large budget organization was asking for money from the emerging career composers the workshop was aimed at.

Hollis Headrick, director of the Weill Music Institute at Carnegie Hall under which the organization’s education programs fall, explains that the fee is a standard for all the professional training workshops offered at Carnegie Hall and helps defray overhead, but accounts for “only about 3.5 percent of the cost of the project.” Headrick equated it to college admission application fees, and though Carnegie Hall did receive one complaint from a composer about the cost, that individual applied. Though he realizes that cost may prevent some from applying, he also suggests that fee has significance. “There’s a subtle message,” he says, “if you have to pay for something, you get something of quality.” For the 160 composers who sent in their checks and their applications—which included biographical information and letters of recommendation—each had their work and their names in front of Harbison and Upshaw for a least a little while during the review process. Whether that opportunity was worth the $30 was left to each composer to decide.

Meeting The Bottom Line

No fee policies may be a fine philosophy for large organizations, such as ASCAP and BMI to follow, but smaller organizations that want to hold such competitions face a number of financial considerations.

Still, planning and intelligent fundraising seems to have helped Music at the Anthology, founded by composer-performers Lisa Bielawa and Eleanor Sandresky. The organization regularly commissions new work for an annual festival and solicits work samples from potential composers, but charges no fee for consideration.

“Eleanor and I have always felt that the expenses of preparing scores and materials are already so high that composing is already a financially treacherous field,” explains Bielawa. Charging fees would feel antithetical to their conception of MATA as an advocate for young composers just starting their careers. According to Bielawa, they raise the needed funds from other sources. “When foundations make grants to us to support the commissioning program, we write a portion of our own honorarium into that budget, since our time is part of the process of commissioning,” she says.

Michael Reese is the executive director of Composers, Inc. which hosts the Lee Ettelson Composers’s Award. For a fee of $25 for single entrees and $20 each for multiple entries, composers are considered for one of two $1000 awards and a performance on Composers, Inc.’s San Francisco concert series.

The fee, Reese says, “is a modest amount that helps us meet the considerable costs of holding the competition but does not make it inaccessible. The large amount of staff and board time we spend as well the printing and mailing of contest announcements makes the actual expenses of holding the competition larger than the fees provide.”

He acknowledges, however, that each composer needs to weigh carefully the award offered and the reputation of the host organization and the performing ensemble, and then should make an informed and considered decision.

“For Composers, Inc., the $25/20 fee provides a functional balance that allows us to continue holding the competition,” says Reese. “Generally what’s appropriate is charging a fee to help defray the costs and ensure the quality of the performance that usually accompanies the award. Ideally, a competition should exist for recognition of outstanding work and not as a source of revenue.”

Composer Pierre Jalbert is no stranger to the competition circuit, including the Lee Ettelson Composers’ Award, BBC Masterprize, BMI and ASCAP Awards, and the Rome Prize. He feels that ideally competitions should not have an entry fee, but he can also understand the difficulty of raising the needed funding to administer the competition. “I would say anything over $25 should be looked at carefully to see whether it’s worth entering. Many of the important competitions don’t require an entry fee,” he says.

Though he no longer enters competitions (“At a certain point, you are no longer a young composer and the music has to speak for itself.”), he says he would still encourage up and coming composers to apply, “but only after considering those without fees first and looking at the overall importance and history of the competition. In general, competitions are useful for getting your name and your music in front of other musicians. This may lead to other connections and possibly commissions.”

Reese illustrates that that is indeed true for Composers, Inc., noting that they usually program additional works that are sent in as entries.

In some respects, charging a fee is a double-edged sword. Those composers who have already won competitions and had some success may be much less likely to pay an entrance fee. An ensemble looking to attract the hottest young talent may be passed over by these composers who feel confident enough in their career to keep their wallet closed.

Others who are searching for a break may feel that writing a check is the way through the door. In the end, Jackson says its up to the individual composer. “If they want to pay an entrance fee in hopes of winning that’s their decision. But composers ought to think about it. And there are always going to be composers who feel that it’s worth it, no matter what. And that’s true even if an ensemble says we’ll play your music for $100. There will be some composers out there who are going to pay the $100.”

Change, please.

There are many different types of opportunities that composers apply for—straight recognition for works already written, a shot at a future performance, or the chance for a commission, not to mention educational and residency opportunities. Opinion varies on what fees are appropriate in each situation. Overall, there is a call for an education initiative to make composers and competition hosts aware of the perceived problem and enlighten patrons who support such composer opportunities so that they provide adequate funding.

Though the questions and concerns over entry fees may seem obvious to composers who have been entering (or not entering) competitions for years, comments from those running fee-driven competitions betrayed no sense of incorrect behavior. And oddly enough, ASCAP’s Fran Richard says that it is often composer run initiatives that are taking advantage of other composers. “In sympathy you could say these guys were putting in their own time and money. It cost them out of their pocket to get this ensemble running, sometimes even to rent the concert hall, and they just say it’s a collective here, kick in your share. They don’t see it as a pernicious thing.”

Compared to 25 years ago, Richard says some improvements within the field have been made. With new competitions coming along all the time, however, the industry needs to keep watch and continue to educate and police the community.

For instance, when she first heard about the Masterprize competition in the UK and noted the $50 application fee, she said she couldn’t support the competition. “I told them ‘you’re offering a global competition, you have strong supporters, you have fancy posters and everything else, why do you have to take it out on the backs of these composers?’ Now they’ve done away with that entry fee charge.”

Maybe it will take a kind of “so you’re planning to start a competition” conversation between composer advocates and competition directors. When each new competition comes along and wants to reach the composer members of various organizations, the standard response is to discuss their policies with them: Will they charge a fee? What will it pay for? Many organizations may be under the impression that they are doing right by the new music community by even offering the opportunity to composers. They may not have even considered the fact that they are funding their competition through the bank accounts of participating composers.

“They don’t look at it that way now,” says Richard, “but we have to show them a different way to look at things, I think.”